Legacy of Quiet Resistance: Feminism in Tunisia through the Lens of History

Background

What does it mean to have a feminist perspective? Feminism has many faces. From the silent resilience of my grandmother to the current challenges - how has the feminist movement  in Tunisia developed?

Photo: Two people run toward the sea on the beach. They are shown in black and white with orange outlines. "RESIST" is written in the bottom left.

What does it mean to have a feminist perspective? Are we born feminists, or do we become one? Must one have experienced gender-based discrimination to hold feminist convictions? Before the term "feminism" was commonly used, how did these movements manifest in women without access to education or activism?

These questions have occupied my mind for years, particularly as I reflect on the quiet yet profound feminism of my grandmother, a woman whose daily acts of resistance shaped my understanding of this movement long before I had the vocabulary for it.

Before "feminism" became a commonly used term, how did it manifest in women with limited access to education or formal activism? My grandmother, living in Tunisia in the early 20th century, fought her battles silently, cunningly employing intelligence in her relationship with her husband. Her quiet defiance became a foundation for understanding the unspoken power of women who, though far from the public eye, played critical roles in challenging patriarchal structures.

This article explores these questions by tracing Tunisia's feminist history through a diachronic lens, examining two significant periods: the 1920s -1960s and the 1960s -1990s. Each era provides insight into how feminism has evolved, highlighting the strength and resilience of Tunisian women, as well as the political movements that amplified their voices.

A Silent Revolution: Feminism Before the Movement 

The early 20th century in Tunisia was a time of colonial rule, political unrest, and strict social norms. During this period, women's roles were defined by traditional family structures, with little access to education or political participation. However, this did not mean that women were passive participants in their own lives. Through subtle, often unnoticed acts, they negotiated their independence and challenged gender norms.

My grandmother’s feminism was not the loud, public kind. Married at the very young age of 12, it manifested in her ability to assert herself within the confines of a traditional marriage. Like many women of her time, she was unaware of the meaning of the term feminism and never referred to her family as patriarchal. She never held a pancarte or participated in public demonstrations. Yet, in her daily life, she challenged deeply rooted conservative norms.

Legal Milestones for Women Rights, yet limited societal progress

On August 13, 1956, less than six months after Tunisia's independence, President Habib Bourguiba promulgated the Code of Personal Status. While some provisions are outdated, the code’s radical measures remain in effect giving Tunisia a reputation as a "feminist state"— a reputation often challenged due to the political and socio-economic challenges Tunisian women continue to face.

The Code, which outlawed polygamy, granted women - long before France and other European nations - equal rights in divorce by mutual consent without the need to prove fault.

However, Bourguiba did not take the risk of intervening in the most significant provisions regarding inheritance, rooted in interpretations of Islamic law. Under these rules, sons inherit twice as much as daughters. Additionally, in the case of adoption, an adopted child does not inherit from their adoptive mother, as inheritance follows biological lineage according to the law - a principle still at the core of Tunisian inheritance law. Tunisians who wish to distribute their inheritance equally must arrange to do so during their lifetime. 

One of her most poignant grandmother battles emerged at the end of her life. As she lay on her deathbed, she implored one of her sons - the one with considerable influence within the family - to allocate part of the inheritance to his half-brother, her husband’s child from another union. She hoped that this final act would bring her peace, allowing her to feel that she had done something truly just. Her son gave his word to respect her request. Yet, after her death, he broke that promise.

For a paradigm shift in gender equality to occur, there must first be a change in how women are perceived and represented

My grandmother’s story reminds me that feminism has always existed, even in its most discreet forms. Similarly, patriarchy has always endured, even in its most progressive iterations. The few legal advancements for women’s rights - such as the ban on polygamy and the regulation of divorce - represented a legal revolution but certainly not an intellectual one. These reforms never truly altered the male gaze, whether conscious or unconscious, as they did not challenge the societal beliefs norms about gender roles. Women’s rights were advanced through stated-led measures, but these reforms did not lead to a shift in how women are perceived, treated and acknowledged.

To drive strategic and transformative change, many social theorists, including Kurt Lewin, emphasize the necessity of shifting perceptions. Lewin, in his change theory, highlights that altering behaviors and social structures requires “unfreezing” old perceptions and beliefs before they can be reshaped and stabilized in a new and more adaptive form. 

For a paradigm shift in gender equality to occur, there must first be a change in how women are perceived and represented, which in turn creates the conditions for behavioral change to follow. This transformation in perception lies at the heart of any profound evolution, whether on an individual or collective level.

Reflections on Intersectionality

This further proves that their convictions and struggles manifested in what we now call intersectionality, encompassing forms of domination, oppression, and discrimination - not separately, but in the connections that weave them together. They operated on the principle that social differentiations such as gender, race, class, nation, religion, generation, sexuality, disability, mental health, or sexual orientation are all interconnected.

This familial struggle of my grandmother against her own sons to defend the principle of equality and justice illustrates how, even without networks or formal support, women like her played a crucial role in resisting systems of oppression. Her expressed wish gave me the pride of inheriting a feminist and socialist legacy from both my grandmother and grandfather. 

The Rise of Organized Socialist Feminism: An Intellectual Elite with Active Female Participation

By the 1960s, Tunisia had gained independence from French colonial rule, and the feminist movements began to take a more structured form. The fight for women’s rights was no longer confined to private spaces; it became part of the larger national dialogue on political and social reform. This era saw the rise of socialist feminism, with women becoming key players in political resistance.

At the end of the 1960s, a wave of freedom swept through Tunisia, especially among the student population, which was deeply influenced by the Marxist and Maoist ideals popular around the world at the time. One of the most notable movements during this period was the "Perspectives" collective, operating in secrecy, a clandestine political group that challenged authoritarian regimes and advocated for women’s emancipation. The women involved in this movement were not only fighting for gender equality but also resisting broader systems of oppression. The group published leaflets and a journal titled Perspectives

We were composed of young women and men eager for freedom and autonomy from the regime. We opposed both imperialism and the autocratic tendencies of Bourguiba's Destourian party, which had become politically monolithic. The left-wing organization was driven by values of patriotism, political pluralism, freedom of expression, and social justice,” said Zeineb Ben Said.

Habib Bourguiba, in his speech vowing to “eradicate the leftist microbes,” launched a brutal campaign of repression against members of the Perspectives movement. These activists, both men and women, were arrested, imprisoned, and subjected to severe physical and psychological torture

In addition to these grassroots movements, the Association Tunisienne des Femmes Démocrates (ATFD) played a pivotal role in institutionalizing feminist activism. Founded in 1989, ATFD emerged from the wave of activism that preceded it, becoming one of the leading voices advocating for women's rights and supporting women, victims of violence in Tunisia. Their efforts were critical in pushing for legal reforms, such as the modification of Article 226 of the Penal Code, which introduced the definition of sexual harassment and criminalized it, particularly in areas concerning women’s status, political participation in the parliament, creating listening centers for women, victims of violence and providing them with legal assistance. They provided a platform for women from various backgrounds to unite under a shared vision of gender equality.

Today’s Arrests: Is History Repeating Itself?

Today in 2025, we find ourselves at a pivotal moment. Tunisia, once seen as a model of progress in women's rights, is now experiencing a troubling regression. Under the presidency of Kaïs Saïed, women's rights are under threat, with arrests and persecution of women who dare to express dissent against the government. This leads us to ask the following question: Could the history of the Perspectives movement repeat itself?

Tunisia, once seen as a model of progress in women's rights, is now experiencing a troubling regression.

This personal "exhibitionism," though painful to expose, aims to demonstrate that patriarchal beliefs, much like feminist struggles, take root within the family core and reflect in the public sphere. What my grandmother experienced within her family, both in her fight for recognition of her adopted child's rights and in her silence against social pressures, mirrors the broader struggles that Tunisian women have faced over the decades. As the saying goes: the personal is political, and my grandmother's story illustrates how deeply this truth is woven into the reality of women's lives.

As Saïed's regime tightens freedoms and imprisons women for their views, feminism in Tunisia confronts new challenges. The hard-won gains appear fragile, and we are once again faced with the question: how do we protect these achievements? 

Looking Forward: Why Documentation Matters

Now, more than ever, we must prioritize the documentation of these stories of feminist resistance - whether through oral histories, written records, or digital supports such as podcasts, and documentaries. Sharing these voices will help us maintain the momentum for progress and ensure that the lessons learned are passed on to future generations. This is our collective responsibility: to document, preserve, and propel forward the struggle for women's rights, no matter the obstacles.

By documenting these narratives, we do not merely remember the past - we construct a roadmap for the future. This is not merely an act of preservation, but a vital step toward keeping the movement alive and relevant in times of crisis. As my grandmother showed me, resistance takes many forms, and we must continue to tell, live, and defend it.